Курс "Обработка нечисловой информации"

A review of basic rhetorical terms, with examples. Use this in conjunction with the rhetoric terms drill program you've been told about.

Version 3.2 Thursday, February 15, 1996 - 04:42:43 PM

The Three Major Elements of Rhetoric

1. The Rhetorical Situation

   Kairos:

   Appropriate Timing and Proportion of Discourse, "Generative Timeliness"

   Decorum:

   Fitting Discourse to Circumstances and Audience

2. Audience
3. Means of Persuasion

The Three Branches of Oratory

1. Judicial (forensic)
2. Legislative (deliberative)
3. Epideictic (demonstrative or ceremonial)

The Five Canons of Rhetoric

1. Invention
2. Arrangement
3. Style
4. Memory
5. Delivery

The Three Sources of Rhetorical Ability

1. Natural Ability or Talent ("natura" "ingenium")
2. Theory or Art ("doctrina" "ars")
3. Practice ("exercitatio" "imitatio")

The Three Kinds of Persuasive Appeals

1. Logos
2. Pathos
3. Ethos

Invention

1. Common Topics

    

   Definition

   Genus / Species

   Division

   Whole / Parts

   Subject / Adjuncts

   Comparison

   Similarity / Difference

   Degree

   Relationship

   Cause / Effect

   Antecedent / Consequence

   Contraries

   Contradictions

   Circumstances

   Possible / Impossible

   Past Fact / Future Fact

   Testimony

   Authorities

   Witnesses

   Maxims or Proverbs

   Rumors

   Oaths

   Documents

   Law

   Precedent

   The supernatural

   Notation and Conjugates

    

2. Special Topics

    

   Judicial

   Status: Determining the Issue

   justice (right)

   injustice (wrong)

   Deliberative

   the good

   the unworthy

   the advantageous

   the disadvantageous

   Ceremonial

   virtue (the noble)

   vice (the base)

Arrangement

1. Introduction ("exordium")
2. Statement of Facts ("narratio")
3. Division ("divisio")
4. Proof ("confirmatio")
5. Refutation ("refutatio")
6. Conclusion ("peroratio")

Style

1. Word choice
2. Sentence composition

3. Levels of Style

   Low

   Middle

   Grand

4. The Figures of Speech

   Schemes

   Tropes

Figures of Speech: Schemes

Scheme: An artful deviation from the ordinary arrangement of words.

1. Structures of Balance

   • Parallelism

     Similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases, or clauses.

     • Isocolon

       A series of similarly structured elements having the same length.

     • Tricolon

       Three parallel elements of the same length occurring together.

   • Antithesis

     Juxtaposition of contrasting ideas (often in parallel structure).

   • Climax

     Generally, the arrangement of words, phrases, or clauses in an order of increasing importance, often in parallel structure.

    

2. Changes in word order

   • Anastrophe

     Inversion of natural word order.

   • Parenthesis

     Insertion of a verbal unit that interrupts normal syntactical flow.

   • Apposition

     Addition of an adjacent, coordinate, explanatory element.

    

3. Omission

   • Ellipsis

     Omission of a word or words readily implied by context.

   • Asyndeton

     Omission of conjunctions between a series of clauses.

   • Brachylogia

     Omission of conjunctions between a series of word.

   • (Polysyndeton)

     Opposite of asyndeton, superabundance of conjunctions

    

4. Repetition

   • Alliteration

     Repetition of initial or medial consonants in two or more adjacent words.

   • Assonance

     Repetition of similar vowel sounds, preceded and followed by different consonants, in the stressed syllables of adjacent words.

   • Polyptoton

     Repetition of words derived from the same root.

   • Antanaclasis

     Repetition of a word in two different senses.

   • Anaphora

     Repetition of the same word or group of words at the beginning of successive clauses.

   • Epistrophe

     Repetition of the same word or group of words at the ends of successive clauses.

   • Epanalepsis

     Repetition at the end of a clause of the word that occurred at the beginning of the clause.

   • Anadiplosis

     Repetition of the last word of one clause at the beginning of the following clause.

   • Climax

     Repetition of the scheme anadiplosis at least three times, with the elements arranged in an order of increasing importance.

   • Antimetabole

     Repetition of words, in successive clauses, in reverse grammatical order. (Sometimes mistaken as chiasmus)

   • Chiasmus

     Repetition of grammatical structures in reverse order in successive phrases or clauses (not to be mistaken with antimetabole).

Figures of Speech: Tropes

Trope: An artful deviation from the ordinary or principal signification of a word.

1. Reference to One Thing as Another

   • Metaphor

     Reference to one thing as another, implying a comparison.

   • Simile

     Explicit comparison of one thing to another.

   • Synecdoche

     A whole is represented by naming one of its parts.

   • Metonymy

     Reference to something or someone by naming one of its attributes.

   • Personification

     Reference to abstractions or inanimate objects as though they had human qualities or abilities.

    

2. Wordplay and puns

   • Antanaclasis

     Repetition of a word in two different senses.

   • Paranomasia

     Using words that sound alike but that differ in meaning (punning).

   • Syllepsis

     Using a word differently in relation to two or more words that it modifies or governs (sometimes called zeugma).

   • Onomatopoeia

     Use of words whose sound correspond with their semantic value.

    

3. Substitutions

   • Anthimeria

     Substitution of one part of speech for another.

   • Periphrasis

     Substitution of a descriptive word or phrase for a proper name or of a proper name for a quality associated with the name.

    

4. Overstatement/Understatement

   • Hyperbole

     Use of exaggerated terms for emphasis or effect.

   • Auxesis

     Reference to something with a name disproportionately greater than its nature (a kind of hyberbole).

   • Litotes

     Understatement used deliberately.

   • Meiosis

     Reference to something with a name disproportionately lesser than its nature (a kind of litotes).

    

5. Semantic Inversions

   • Rhetorical Question

     Asking a question for a purpose other than obtaining the information requested.

   • Irony

     Using language in such a way as to convey a meaning opposite of what the terms used denote (often by exaggeration).

   • Oxymoron

     Placing two ordinarily opposing terms adjacent to one another. A compressed paradox.

   • Paradox

     An apparently contradictory statement that contains a measure of truth.

Rhetorical Pedagogy

1. Analysis

   Technical vocabulary: grammar, rhetoric, logic

   Parsing

   Literature

   Notebooks

2. Genesis

   Imitation

   Amplification / Abbreviation

   Variation

3. Exercises

   Copying

   Reading Aloud

   Imitations

   • Translation
   • Paraphrase

   Progymnasmata

   Declamations

4. Copia

The 14 Progymnasmata

Similar progymnasmata are grouped together. These are in general sequential.

1. Fable
2. Narrative
3. Chreia
4. Proverb
5. Refutation
6. Confirmation
7. Commonplace
8. Encomium
9. Vituperation
10. Comparison
11. Impersonation
12. Description
13. Thesis or Theme
14. Defend / Attack a Law

The 14 Progymnasmata -- Detail

The Progymnasmata Exercises: Fable

 

Definition:

Fable (Greek: mythos) is "a composition which is false, but gives the semblance of truth."

 

Directions for Composition

Paraphrase a fable, typically one of Aesop's, through amplification and abbreviation; or, write a new one in close imitation of Aesop. It was specifically recommended that students turn indirect discourse into direct discourse.

 

Example

This example comes from Hermogenes' treatise on the Progymnasmata. He first gives the "bare narrative," followed by his amplification employing dialogue:

"The monkeys in council deliberated on the necessity of settling in houses. When they had made up their minds to this end and were about to set to work, an old monkey restrained them, saying that they would more easily be captured if they were caught within enclosures."

Thus if you are concise; but if you wish to expand, proceed in this way.

"The monkeys in council deliberated on the founding of a city; and one coming forward made a speech to the effect that they too must have a city. "For see," said he, "how fortunate in this regard are men. Not only does each of them have a house, but all going up together to public meeting or theater delight their souls with all manner of things to see and hear."

Go on thus, dwelling on the incidents and saying that the decree was formally passed; and devise a speech for the old monkey.

The Progymnasmata Exercises: Narrative

 

Definition:

Narrative (Greek: diegema) is "a composition giving an account of an action which has happene d or as though it had happened"

 

Directions for Composition

Retell a story from the poets or historians, attempting to be clear as to the facts:

• Who did it
• What was done
• When it was done
• Where it was done
• How it was done
• Why it was done

The Progymnasmata Exercises: Chreia

 

Definition:

"Chreia" (from the Greek chreiodes, "useful") is "a brief reminiscence referring to some person in a pithy form for the purpose of edification." It takes the form of an anecdote that reports either a saying, an edifying action, or both.

 

Directions for Composition

Amplify a brief account of what someone has said or done, using these steps:

1. Praise the sayer or doer, or praise the chreia itself
2. G ive a paraphrase of the theme
3. Say why this was said or done
4. Introduce a contrast
5. Introduce a comparison
6. Give an example of the meaning
7. Support the saying/action with testimony of others
8. Conclude with a brief epilog or conclusion

 

Example

This example, taken from Plato's Republic, does not follow the above steps strictly, but you can get a sense of how the Chreia was used in literature to support a point. For a more exact following of the steps, see the example of the proverb, below. (In this passage Cephalus addresses Socrates and Glaucon regarding the apparent pains of old age

"How well I remember the aged poet Sophocles, when in answer to the question, How does lovemaking suit with old age, Sophocles, --are you still the man you were? Peace, he replied; most gladly have I escaped the thing of which you speak; I feel as if I had escaped from a mad and furious master. His words have often occurred to my mind since, and they seem as good to me now as at the time when he uttered them. For certainly old age has a great sense of calm and freedom; when the passions relax their hold, then, as Sophocles says, we are freed from the grasp not of one mad master only, but of many."

The Progymnasmata Exercises: Proverb

 

Definition:

The exercise known as proverb (Greek gnome), amplifies "a summary declarative statement, recommending or condemning something". This is similar to the "chreia," except the author of the saying is unnamed. Generic "sententia," or commonly known moralistic sayings, are taken as subjects to be amplified in ways nearly identical to those of the chreia

 

Directions for Composition

Amplify a brief account of what someone has said or done, using these steps:

1. Praise the saying itself
2. G ive a paraphrase of the theme
3. Say why this was said
4. Introduce a contrast
5. Introduce a comparison
6. Give an example of the meaning
7. Support the saying/action with testimony of others
8. Conclude with a brief epilog or conclusion

Example

"It is better to dwell in a corner of the housetop, than with a brawling woman in a wide house." --Proverbs 21: 9

Solomon, that paragon of wisdom, did indeed show his acumen when he stated in Proverbs that it would be better to live in a tiny and insignificant dwelling than to have a mansion but share it with a cantankerous wife. A man of so many wives must have known this from experience, yet he gave this proverb as a caution both to wives and their husbands and for their mutual benefit. It is indeed better to have domestic harmony than to have that discord that comes when one spouse rails against the other. Living with a nagging, brawling wife is like living with the TV forever tuned to Rush Limbaugh on a cranky day. For example, I knew of one man of great potential for public office who won over ever constituency except that at his house. There, where his wife seemed to have an inordinate power of veto, none of his legislation ever passed. He became so discouraged that he gave up his political ambitions and now sweeps floors at Taco Bell. Our own modern-day Church leaders have cautioned us to have peace in the home. Spencer W. Kimball once encouraged spouses to have regular interviews with one another where they could check up on one another and fix things that were amiss. We cannot hope to follow President Kimball or the older and wisest Solomon if we do not take the advice of the latter and so avoid the unhappy scene described by the former.

The Progymnasmata Exercises: Refutation

 

Definition:

Refutation (Greek: anaskeue) is an attack on an opposite view, typically attacking the credibility of a myth or legend. It was a companion to the following exercise (confirmation). Both exercises corresponded directly to the parts of an oration, (although in the progymnasmata refutation preceded confirmation, presumably because it is easier to attack another position than to establish one's own).

 

Directions for Composition

Attack the credibility of a myth or legend employing these steps:

1. Blame the teller of the story
2. Give a summary of the story
3. Attack it as being:
   • obscure
   • incredible
   • impossible
   • illogical
   • unfitting, and
   • unprofitable.

Example

The Progymnasmata Exercises: Confirmation

 

Definition:

Confirmation (Greek: kataskeue), the opposite of the previous exercise, is the simple attempt to prove a given view, typically by arguing the credibility of a myth or legend. It followed a similar pattern as refutation, and like it, corresponded directly to one of the parts of an oration.

 

Directions for Composition

Argue for the credibility of a myth or legend employing the following steps:

1. Praise the teller of the story
2. Give a summary of the story
3. Confirm the story as being:
   • manifest
   • probable
   • possible
   • logical
   • fitting, and
   • profitable.

Example

The Progymnasmata Exercises: Commonplace

 

Definition:

Commonplace (Greek: koinos topos) is "a composition which amplifies inherent evils" (originally described as an amplification of either a virtue or vice, but in practice more the latter). A preparation for the following two exercises, encomium and vituperation, the commonplace differed from these by taking up a general virtue or vice, rather than the specific qualities of a single person. Subjects included gambling, theft, adultery, etc. Sometimes it took up the virtues/vices of specific kinds of persons; e.g., tyrants.

 

Directions for Composition

Argue for or against a general (common) fault or virtue of human nature (or a type of person), using these steps:

1. Begin with the contrary or a contradiction
2. Introduce a comparison, comparing something better to what is attacked
3. Introduce a proverb that upbraids the motivation of the doer of the deed
4. Employ a digression with a defamatory conjecture as to the past life of the person accused
5. Repudiate the idea of taking pity on such a person
6. Consider the following headings in discussing this virtue or vice:
   • legality
   • justice
   • expediency
   • practicability
   • decency
   • consequences

Example

The Progymnasmata Exercises: Encomium

 

Definition:

Encomium (Greek: enkomion) is "a composition expository of attendant excellencies." Subjects include persons, things (such as abstract ideas), times (as the seasons), places, animals, and growing things, either general or specific.

 

Directions for Composition

Praise a person or thing for being virtuous. After composing an exordium (introduction), follow these steps:

1. Describe the stock a person comes from:
   • what people
   • what country
   • what ancestors
   • what parents
2. Describe the person's upbringing
   • education
   • instruction in art
   • training in laws
3. Describe the person's deeds, which should be described as the results of
   • his/her excellencies of mind (such as fortitude or prudence)
   • his/her excellencies of body (such as beauty, speed, or vigor)
   • his/her excellencies of fortune (as high position, power, wealth, friends)
4. Make a favorable comparison to someone else to escalate your praise
5. Conclude with an epilogue including either an exhortation to your hearers to emulate this person, or a prayer.

Example

The Progymnasmata Exercises: Vituperation

 

Definition:

Vituperation or Invective (Greek: psogos) is "a composition expository of attendant evils" and is a companion to the previous exercise, encomium. It also compares to the Commonplace exercise, but differs in speaking against not general vices or types of persons, but a specific individual. As the encomium, the vituperation includes as subjects chiefly persons, but also can take up things (such as abstract ideas), times (as the seasons), places, or animals.

 

Directions for Composition

Attack a person or thing for being vicious. After composing an exordium (introduction), follow these steps:

1. Describe the stock a person comes from:
   • what people
   • what country
   • what ancestors
   • what parents
2. Describe the person's upbringing
   • education
   • instruction in art
   • training in laws
3. Describe the person's deeds, which should be described as the results of
   • his/her evils of mind (such as weakness or indiscretion)
   • his/her evils of body (such as plainness, lethargy, or lack of vigor)
   • his/her evils of fortune (as lack of or corruption of high position, power, wealth, friends)
4. Make a disfavorable comparison to someone else to escalate your vituperation
5. Conclude with an epilogue including either an exhortation to your hearers not to emulate this person, or a prayer.

Example

The Progymnasmata Exercises: Comparison

 

Definition:

Comparison (Greek: synkrisis) is "a comparative composition, setting something greater or equal side by side with the subject." Building on the previous two exercises, this is either a double encomium or an encomium paired with a vituperation. Students were instructed to make a forceful effect. Subject matter is the same as in the prior two exercises, but often included historical, legendary, or fictitious characters.

 

Directions for Composition

Praise two people (or things) in close comparison, or praise one and vituperate against the other. Be certain not to treat them separately, but together, in parallel fashion. After composing an exordium (introduction), follow these steps:

1. Describe the stock each person comes from:
   • what people
   • what country
   • what ancestors
   • what parents
2. Describe each person's upbringing
   • education
   • instruction in art
   • training in laws
3. Describe each person's deeds, which should be described as the results of
   • his/her excellencies or evils of mind (such as fortitude/weakness or prudence/indiscretion)
   • his/her excellencies or evils of body (such as beauty/plainness, speed/lethargy, or vigor/lack of vigor)
   • his/her excellencies or evils of fortune (good/ill use of high position, power, wealth, or friends)
4. Conclude with an epilogue including either an exhortation to your hearers to/not to emulate either person, or a prayer.

Example

The Progymnasmata Exercises: Impersonation

 

Definition:

Impersonation or Personification (Greek: ethopoeia or prosopopoeia) is "an imitation of the ethos [character] of a person chosen to be portrayed." It is comparable to the modern "dramatic monologue." Like the encomium, the subject could be an historical, legendary, or fictitious character. Unlike any exercise so far, as an "imitation" the impersonation was dramatic in form, employing dialogue.

 

Directions for Composition

Compose lines for a person, real or imaginary, dead or living, to speak under given circumstances. Dramatize through direct speech, using description and emotional language where appropriate, fitting the speech to the character of the speaker and the circumstances.

1. One should compose the impersonation in the style in which the character would speak, considering:
   • clarity
   • conciseness
   • floridity
   • lack of finish
   • absence of figures
2. Consider also aspects of
   • past
   • present
   • future

Example

The Progymnasmata Exercises: Description

 

Definition:

Description (Greek: ekphrasis) is "a composition bringing the subject clearly before the eyes". Like the encomium, the subjects may be persons, actions, tiems, places, animals, and growign things.

 

Directions for Composition

Employing many figures of speech, describe a person or other subject so that it stands before the listener's eyes. Be complete (if describing a person, do it from head to foot; if an action, from the start to the results).

Example

The Progymnasmata Exercises: Thesis or Theme

 

Definition:

Theme or argument (Greek: thesis) is "a logical examination of a subject under investigation" and could be political or theoretical in nature. It is the first exercise to introduce arguing on two sides of a given question. Typical subjects for political themes include matters one would debate in a deliberative body such as, Should the city be walled? and general social issues such as "Should one marry?". Speculative or theoretical themes included such questions as "Is the heaven spherical?" As opposed to the hypothesis, the thesis was not applied to a specific individual or a given pragmatic concern, but argued generally (as the Commonplace, from which it borrows its headings:)

 

Directions for Composition

Examine a political or speculative question from both sides (thesis and antithesis):

1. Begin with an exordium
2. Add narratio, if appropriate
3. Present confirmatory arguments (proof)
4. Rebut opposition (refutation)
5. Conclude with epilogue.
6. In proceeding, consider arguments based on
   • legality
   • justice
   • expediency
   • practicability
   • decency
   • consequences

Example

The Progymnasmata Exercises: Defend / Attack a Law

 

Definition:

Defend or attack a law (Greek: nomou eisphora) is more of a declamation than a progymnasma, more of an hypothesis than a thesis, but borrows from the thesis the attempt to argue two sides of an issue, while applying this to a specific law, real or fictional.

 

Directions for Composition

Discuss the pros and cons of real, historical, or even fictitious laws. Use the following headings:

• legality
• justice
• expediency
• practicability
• decency
• consequences

Example